PSYC FPX 4100 Assessment 2 Applied Psychology in Professions PSYC FPX 4100 History and Modern Systems of Psychology

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Introduction

Psychophysiology is the scientific exploration of the reciprocal relationships between the mind and body, characterized by interdisciplinary and multi-measure research studies. The roots of psychophysiology can be traced back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries (Cooke & Ring, 2019). Sports psychology, a more recent branch of psychology, has gained attention over the past four decades. This field essentially merges the broad domain of psychology with the more specific areas of exercise and sports. Professionals in this field are commonly referred to as sport psychologists, sport and exercise psychologists, or exercise and sport psychologists (EH B, 2012).

One significant error identified in sports psychology research is the tendency to measure individuals in specific situations rather than as individuals themselves; psychological measurements cannot exist in a situational vacuum. This highlights the importance of considering situational contexts when assessing individual differences. A person’s circumstances can greatly influence outcomes in sports. For instance, when evaluating competitive anxiety, the timing relative to an important competition can significantly affect results. The motivation or adrenaline to perform may not manifest until the competition approaches. Therefore, it is crucial to assess individual differences that remain consistent across various situations and times, rather than those influenced by a specific context (Ziegler, 2004). This paper aims to highlight the primary error within sports psychology studies and the theories that support mitigating these errors to enhance sports performance research.

Sports Psychology

The field of sports psychology was initiated by pioneers such as Charles Darwin, William James, and Walter Cannon, who began documenting physiological changes associated with emotions and other psychological states. Psychophysiology was formally established as a distinct research discipline in the 1960s with the formation of the Society for Psychophysiological Research. Today, psychophysiology is diverse, encompassing various subtopics, including cognitive and social neuroscience, neuropsychology, and cardiovascular psychophysiology. However, the core mission of the discipline remains the exploration of the relationship between physiological responses and human behavior (Cooke & Ring, 2019).

As sport psychologists shifted their focus to applied work, they began to investigate mental skills training methods, such as imagery, concentration skills, and arousal control, from a more scientific and empirical standpoint (Nesti, 2004). Most psychologists utilize tests and questionnaires to assess individual cognitive and physical differences, which are often viewed as relatively stable across time and situations, referred to as traits or aspects of personality. The premise is that predictions regarding future behavior or performance can be made based on these cognitive and physical measures (Ziegler, 2009).

PSYC FPX 4100 Assessment 2 Applied Psychology in Professions

The humanistic model emerged in the 1960s as a response to the limitations of behaviorism and psychoanalysis. Humanistic psychology focuses on studying the whole person and their unique characteristics. This approach is similarly reflected in sports psychology. Humanistic psychologists and researchers expressed concern over the inability of the two dominant psychological schools to address essential aspects of human experience. The variables they emphasized were predominantly positive and personal, including love, creativity, responsibility, freedom, and self-actualization. This represented a call for psychology to shift its focus away from pathology and mental illness (Nesti, 2004).

Steyer and colleagues introduced the latent state–trait (LST) theory, which provides the theoretical foundation and statistical techniques necessary for understanding individual differences. LST theory posits that a person’s score on any given test is influenced, at least in part, by situational factors. This theory offers a framework for distinguishing between different sources of variance without the need to define or measure situational aspects. In LST, specific coefficients can be calculated to provide insights into consistency, occasion specificity, and the reliability of an instrument across different samples and situations (Ziegler, 2004). The structure of LST theory presents numerous advantages not only for sports psychologists but for psychologists in general. It allows for the assessment of the influence of both traits and states, as well as improved reliability estimates for traits and guidance on specific research questions (Ziegler, 2004).

Summary and Conclusion

Sport psychology is gaining popularity among both students a